Daniel Todd Laskowitz

Professor of Neurology

Our laboratory uses molecular biology, cell culture, and animal modeling techniques to examine the CNS response to acute injury. In particular, our laboratory examines the role of microglial activation and the endogenous CNS inflammatory response in exacerbating secondary injury following acute brain insult. Much of the in vitro work in this laboratory is dedicated to elucidating cellular responses to injury with the ultimate goal of exploring new therapeutic interventions in the clinical setting of stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, and closed head injury.

In conjunction with the Multidisciplinary Neuroprotection Laboratories, we also focus on clinically relevant small animal models of acute CNS injury. For example, we have recently characterized murine models of closed head injury, subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracranial hemorrhage and perinatal hypoxia-ischemia, in addition to the standard rodent models of focal stroke and transient forebrain ischemia. Recently we have adapted several of these models from the rat to the mouse to take advantage of murine transgenic technology. The objective of these studies are two-fold: to gain better insight into the cellular responses and pathophysiology of acute brain injury, and to test novel therapeutic strategies for clinical translation. In both cell culture systems and animal models, our primary focus is on examining the role of oxidative stress and inflammatory mechanism in mediating brain injury following acute brain insult, and examining the neuroprotective effects of endogenous apolipoprotein E in the injured mammalian central nervous system.

Our laboratory is committed to translational research, and has several active clinical research protocols, which are designed to bring the research performed in the Multidisciplinary Research Laboratories to the clinical arena. These protocols are centered around patients following stroke and acute brain injury, and are primarily based out of the Emergency Room and Neurocritical Care Unit. For example, we are currently examining the role of inflammatory mediators for use as a point-of-care diagnostic marker following stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, and closed head injury. We have recently translated a novel apoE mimetic from the preclinical setting to a multi center Phase 2 trial evaluating efficacy in intracranial hemorrhage. We are also examining the functional role of different polymorphisms of of inflammatory cytokines in the setting of acute brain injury and neurological dysfunction following cardiopulmonary bypass.

Appointments and Affiliations

  • Professor of Neurology
  • Assistant Dean for Scholarly Education
  • Director, Duke Clinical Research Institute in the Department of Neurology
  • Vice Chair for Academic Affairs in the Department of Neurology
  • Professor in Neurosurgery
  • Professor in Neurobiology
  • Professor in Anesthesiology
  • Associate of the Duke Initiative for Science & Society
  • Member in the Duke Clinical Research Institute
  • Affiliate, Duke Global Health Institute

Contact Information

  • Email Address: daniel.laskowitz@duke.edu

Education

  • M.D. Duke University, 1991
  • University of Pennsylvania, 1995
  • Duke University, 1997

Awards, Honors, and Distinctions

  • A.A. Bennet Award in Neuroscience. Brown University . 2017
  • Chairman Award for Excellence. Duke University Medical Center. 2017
  • Faculty inductee, AOA Medical Honor Society. AOA. 2011
  • Annual Scientific Award, Society of Critical Care Medicine. SCCM. 2010
  • Fellow, American Neurological Association. ANA. 2003
  • Fellow, American Heart Association. AHA. 2001
  • Paul Beeson Physician Faculty Scholar. American Foundation Aging Research. 1999
  • Genentech Young Investigator Award in Stroke. AAN/Genentech. 1997
  • National Stroke Association Fellowship. National Stroke Association . 1997
  • Upjohn and Pharmacia Award for Outstanding CNS Research. Upjohn and Pharmacia/ Duke University Medical Center. 1997
  • American Association of Neurology Resident Scholar Award. University of Pennsylvania. 1995
  • Long Island Jewish Medical Center Intern of the Year. Long Island Jewish Medical Center. 1992
  • Sandoz Award for Superior Academic Achievement. Duke University School of Medicine. 1991

Courses Taught

  • THESIS 301B: Thesis
  • INTERDIS 312B: Research Ethics
  • CRS 301B: CONTINUATION OF RESEARCH STUDY

In the News

Representative Publications

  • Phillips, Samantha, Leanne Stanley, Heather Nicoletto, Marilyn Burkman, Daniel T. Laskowitz, and Charles B. Cairns. “Use of emergency department transcranial Doppler assessment of reperfusion after intravenous tPA for ischemic stroke.” J Emerg Med 42, no. 1 (January 2012): 40–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2008.06.028.
  • James, Michael L., Robert Blessing, Barbara G. Phillips-Bute, Ellen Bennett, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “S100B and brain natriuretic peptide predict functional neurological outcome after intracerebral haemorrhage.” Biomarkers 14, no. 6 (September 2009): 388–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547500903015784.
  • Mathew, Joseph P., G Burkhard Mackensen, Barbara Phillips-Bute, Hilary P. Grocott, Donald D. Glower, Daniel T. Laskowitz, James A. Blumenthal, Mark F. Newman, and Mark F. Neurologic Outcome Research Group (NORG) of the Duke Heart Center. “Randomized, double-blinded, placebo controlled study of neuroprotection with lidocaine in cardiac surgery.” Stroke 40, no. 3 (March 2009): 880–87. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.531236.
  • Smith, Stephen W., Nikolas M. Ivancevich, Brooks D. Lindsey, John Whitman, Edward Light, Matthew Fronheiser, Heather A. Nicoletto, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “The ultrasound brain helmet: feasibility study of multiple simultaneous 3D scans of cerebral vasculature.” Ultrasound Med Biol 35, no. 2 (February 2009): 329–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2008.08.016.
  • James, Michael L., Patrick M. Sullivan, Christopher D. Lascola, Michael P. Vitek, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Pharmacogenomic effects of apolipoprotein e on intracerebral hemorrhage.” Stroke 40, no. 2 (February 2009): 632–39. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.530402.
  • James, Michael L., Robert Blessing, Ellen Bennett, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E modifies neurological outcome by affecting cerebral edema but not hematoma size after intracerebral hemorrhage in humans.” J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 18, no. 2 (2009): 144–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.09.012.
  • Wang, H., D. J. Christensen, M. P. Vitek, P. M. Sullivan, and D. T. Laskowitz. “APOE genotype affects outcome in a murine model of sepsis: implications for a new treatment strategy.” Anaesth Intensive Care 37, no. 1 (January 2009): 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0310057X0903700111.
  • Laskowitz, Daniel T., Scott E. Kasner, Jeffrey Saver, Kerri S. Remmel, Edward C. Jauch, and Edward C. BRAIN Study Group. “Clinical usefulness of a biomarker-based diagnostic test for acute stroke: the Biomarker Rapid Assessment in Ischemic Injury (BRAIN) study.” Stroke 40, no. 1 (January 2009): 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.516377.
  • Takata, Ken, Huaxin Sheng, Cecil O. Borel, Daniel T. Laskowitz, David S. Warner, and Frederick W. Lombard. “Long-term cognitive dysfunction following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage: new perspectives.” Exp Neurol 213, no. 2 (October 2008): 336–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.06.009.
  • Ivancevich, Nikolas M., Gianmarco F. Pinton, Heather A. Nicoletto, Ellen Bennett, Daniel T. Laskowitz, and Stephen W. Smith. “Real-time 3-D contrast-enhanced transcranial ultrasound and aberration correction.” Ultrasound Med Biol 34, no. 9 (September 2008): 1387–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2008.01.015.
  • Laskowitz, Daniel T., and David S. Warner. “The use of S100B as a biomarker in subarachnoid hemorrhage: clarity in its promise and limits.” Crit Care Med 36, no. 8 (August 2008): 2452–53. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181810457.
  • Gump, William, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Management of post-subarachnoid hemorrhage vasospasm.” Curr Atheroscler Rep 10, no. 4 (August 2008): 354–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11883-008-0054-7.
  • Glickman, Seth W., Kevin J. Anstrom, Li Lin, Abhinav Chandra, Daniel T. Laskowitz, Christopher W. Woods, Debra H. Freeman, et al. “Challenges in enrollment of minority, pediatric, and geriatric patients in emergency and acute care clinical research.” Ann Emerg Med 51, no. 6 (June 2008): 775-780.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.11.002.
  • James, Michael Lucas, David S. Warner, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Preclinical models of intracerebral hemorrhage: a translational perspective.” Neurocrit Care 9, no. 1 (2008): 139–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-007-9030-2.
  • Laskowitz, Daniel T., and David S. Warner. “Statins in acute brain injury: getting the cart before the horse.” Neurocrit Care 8, no. 1 (2008): 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-007-9040-0.
  • Laskowitz, Daniel T., and Michael P. Vitek. “Apolipoprotein E and neurological disease: therapeutic potential and pharmacogenomic interactions.” Pharmacogenomics 8, no. 8 (August 2007): 959–69. https://doi.org/10.2217/14622416.8.8.959.
  • Wang, Haichen, John R. Lynch, Pingping Song, Hyuk-Jun Yang, Robert B. Yates, Brian Mace, David S. Warner, John R. Guyton, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Simvastatin and atorvastatin improve behavioral outcome, reduce hippocampal degeneration, and improve cerebral blood flow after experimental traumatic brain injury.” Exp Neurol 206, no. 1 (July 2007): 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.03.031.
  • Laskowitz, Daniel T., Suzanne E. McKenna, Pingping Song, Haichen Wang, Lori Durham, Nolan Yeung, Dale Christensen, and Michael P. Vitek. “COG1410, a novel apolipoprotein E-based peptide, improves functional recovery in a murine model of traumatic brain injury.” J Neurotrauma 24, no. 7 (July 2007): 1093–1107. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.0192.
  • Mace, Brian E., Haichen Wang, John R. Lynch, Jason Moss, Patrick Sullivan, Heidi Colton, Kevin Morgan, Jean-Christophe Renauld, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E modifies the CNS response to injury via a histamine-mediated pathway.” Neurol Res 29, no. 3 (April 2007): 243–50. https://doi.org/10.1179/016164107X158974.
  • Wang, H., L. Durham, H. Dawson, P. Song, D. S. Warner, P. M. Sullivan, M. P. Vitek, and D. T. Laskowitz. “An apolipoprotein E-based therapeutic improves outcome and reduces Alzheimer's disease pathology following closed head injury: evidence of pharmacogenomic interaction.” Neuroscience 144, no. 4 (February 23, 2007): 1324–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.11.017.
  • Ely, E Wesley, Timothy D. Girard, Ayumi K. Shintani, James C. Jackson, Sharon M. Gordon, Jason W. W. Thomason, Brenda T. Pun, et al. “Apolipoprotein E4 polymorphism as a genetic predisposition to delirium in critically ill patients.” Crit Care Med 35, no. 1 (January 2007): 112–17. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.CCM.0000251925.18961.CA.
  • Jauch, Edward C., and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Can D-dimer levels identify patients at risk for early neurological deterioration in acute ischemic stroke?” Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2, no. 11 (November 2006): 590–91. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpneuro0321.
  • McGirt, Matthew J., Robert Blessing, Michael J. Alexander, Shahid M. Nimjee, Graeme F. Woodworth, Allan H. Friedman, Carmelo Graffagnino, Daniel T. Laskowitz, and John R. Lynch. “Risk of cerebral vasopasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage reduced by statin therapy: A multivariate analysis of an institutional experience.” J Neurosurg 105, no. 5 (November 2006): 671–74. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.2006.105.5.671.
  • Mesis, Rachel G., Haichen Wang, Frederick W. Lombard, Robert Yates, Michael P. Vitek, Cecil O. Borel, David S. Warner, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Dissociation between vasospasm and functional improvement in a murine model of subarachnoid hemorrhage.” Neurosurg Focus 21, no. 3 (September 15, 2006): E4. https://doi.org/10.3171/foc.2006.21.3.4.
  • Li, Feng-Qiao, Gregory D. Sempowski, Suzanne E. McKenna, Daniel T. Laskowitz, Carol A. Colton, and Michael P. Vitek. “Apolipoprotein E-derived peptides ameliorate clinical disability and inflammatory infiltrates into the spinal cord in a murine model of multiple sclerosis.” J Pharmacol Exp Ther 318, no. 3 (September 2006): 956–65. https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.106.103671.
  • Newman, Mark F., Joseph P. Mathew, Hilary P. Grocott, G Burkhard Mackensen, Terri Monk, Kathleen A. Welsh-Bohmer, James A. Blumenthal, Daniel T. Laskowitz, and Daniel B. Mark. “Central nervous system injury associated with cardiac surgery.” Lancet 368, no. 9536 (August 19, 2006): 694–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69254-4.
  • Warner, David S., and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Changing outcome from aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: another step closer.” Anesthesiology 104, no. 4 (April 2006): 629–30. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200604000-00002.
  • Leinenweber, Stephen B., Huaxin Sheng, John R. Lynch, Haichen Wang, Ines Batinić-Haberle, Daniel T. Laskowitz, James D. Crapo, Robert D. Pearlstein, and David S. Warner. “Effects of a manganese (III) porphyrin catalytic antioxidant in a mouse closed head injury model.” Eur J Pharmacol 531, no. 1–3 (February 15, 2006): 126–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.12.031.
  • Wang, Haichen, Junling Gao, Timothy F. Lassiter, David L. McDonagh, Huaxin Sheng, David S. Warner, John R. Lynch, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Levetiracetam is neuroprotective in murine models of closed head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage.” Neurocrit Care 5, no. 1 (2006): 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1385/NCC:5:1:71.
  • Gao, Junling, Haichen Wang, Huaxin Sheng, John R. Lynch, David S. Warner, Lori Durham, Michael P. Vitek, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “A novel apoE-derived therapeutic reduces vasospasm and improves outcome in a murine model of subarachnoid hemorrhage.” Neurocrit Care 4, no. 1 (2006): 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1385/NCC:4:1:025.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., H. Fillit, N. Yeung, K. Toku, and M. P. Vitek. “Apolipoprotein E-derived peptides reduce CNS inflammation: implications for therapy of neurological disease.” Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 185 (2006): 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2006.00680.x.
  • Phillips-Bute, Barbara, Joseph P. Mathew, James A. Blumenthal, Hilary P. Grocott, Daniel T. Laskowitz, Robert H. Jones, Daniel B. Mark, and Mark F. Newman. “Association of neurocognitive function and quality of life 1 year after coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery.” Psychosom Med 68, no. 3 (2006): 369–75. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000221272.77984.e2.
  • Moretti, Eugene W., Richard W. Morris, Mihai Podgoreanu, Debra A. Schwinn, Mark F. Newman, Ellen Bennett, Victor G. Moulin, Uzo U. Mba, Daniel T. Laskowitz, and Daniel T. Perioperative Genetics and Safety Outcomes Study (PEGASUS) Investigative Team. “APOE polymorphism is associated with risk of severe sepsis in surgical patients.” Crit Care Med 33, no. 11 (November 2005): 2521–26. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ccm.0000186368.96146.fb.
  • Lynch, John R., Haichen Wang, Matthew J. McGirt, James Floyd, Allan H. Friedman, Alexander L. Coon, Robert Blessing, et al. “Simvastatin reduces vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: results of a pilot randomized clinical trial.” Stroke 36, no. 9 (September 2005): 2024–26. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000177879.11607.10.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., R. Blessing, J. Floyd, W. D. White, and J. R. Lynch. “Panel of biomarkers predicts stroke.” Ann N Y Acad Sci 1053 (August 2005): 30. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1344.051.
  • Lynch, John R., Haichen Wang, Brian Mace, Stephen Leinenweber, David S. Warner, Ellen R. Bennett, Michael P. Vitek, Suzanne McKenna, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “A novel therapeutic derived from apolipoprotein E reduces brain inflammation and improves outcome after closed head injury.” Exp Neurol 192, no. 1 (March 2005): 109–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.11.014.
  • McGirt, Matthew J., Graeme F. Woodworth, Gustavo Pradilla, Federico Legnani, David Warner, Rafael Tamargo, Richard Clatterbuck, John R. Lynch, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Galbraith Award: simvastatin attenuates experimental cerebral vasospasm and ameliorates serum markers of neuronal and endothelial injury in patients after subarachnoid hemorrhage: a dose-response effect dependent on endothelial nitric oxide synthase.” Clin Neurosurg 52 (2005): 371–78.
  • Lynch, John R., Robert Blessing, William D. White, Hilary P. Grocott, Mark F. Newman, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Novel diagnostic test for acute stroke.” Stroke 35, no. 1 (January 2004): 57–63. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000105927.62344.4C.
  • Lynch, John R., Wen Tang, Haichen Wang, Michael P. Vitek, Ellen R. Bennett, Patrick M. Sullivan, David S. Warner, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “APOE genotype and an ApoE-mimetic peptide modify the systemic and central nervous system inflammatory response.” J Biol Chem 278, no. 49 (December 5, 2003): 48529–33. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M306923200.
  • McGirt, Matthew J., John C. Mavropoulos, Laura Y. McGirt, Michael J. Alexander, Allan H. Friedman, Daniel T. Laskowitz, and John R. Lynch. “Leukocytosis as an independent risk factor for cerebral vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.” J Neurosurg 98, no. 6 (June 2003): 1222–26. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.2003.98.6.1222.
  • Aono, M., E. R. Bennett, K. S. Kim, J. R. Lynch, J. Myers, R. D. Pearlstein, D. S. Warner, and D. T. Laskowitz. “Protective effect of apolipoprotein E-mimetic peptides on N-methyl-D-aspartate excitotoxicity in primary rat neuronal-glial cell cultures.” Neuroscience 116, no. 2 (2003): 437–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4522(02)00709-1.
  • McGirt, Matthew J., John R. Lynch, Augusto Parra, Huaxin Sheng, Robert D. Pearlstein, Daniel T. Laskowitz, Dale A. Pelligrino, and David S. Warner. “Simvastatin increases endothelial nitric oxide synthase and ameliorates cerebral vasospasm resulting from subarachnoid hemorrhage.” Stroke 33, no. 12 (December 2002): 2950–56. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.0000038986.68044.39.
  • McGirt, Matthew J., John R. Lynch, Robert Blessing, David S. Warner, Allan H. Friedman, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Serum von Willebrand factor, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and vascular endothelial growth factor levels predict the onset of cerebral vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.” Neurosurgery 51, no. 5 (November 2002): 1128–34. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006123-200211000-00005.
  • Aono, Mitsuo, Yoonki Lee, Elfrida R. Grant, Robert A. Zivin, Robert D. Pearlstein, David S. Warner, Ellen R. Bennett, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E protects against NMDA excitotoxicity.” Neurobiol Dis 11, no. 1 (October 2002): 214–20. https://doi.org/10.1006/nbdi.2002.0541.
  • Lynch, John R., Jose A. Pineda, Duncan Morgan, Lin Zhang, David S. Warner, Helen Benveniste, and Daniel T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E affects the central nervous system response to injury and the development of cerebral edema.” Ann Neurol 51, no. 1 (January 2002): 113–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10098.
  • Misra, U. K., C. L. Adlakha, G. Gawdi, M. K. McMillian, S. V. Pizzo, and D. T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E and mimetic peptide initiate a calcium-dependent signaling response in macrophages.” J Leukoc Biol 70, no. 4 (October 2001): 677–83.
  • Grocott, H. P., M. F. Newman, H. El-Moalem, D. Bainbridge, A. Butler, and D. T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E genotype differentially influences the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory response to cardiopulmonary bypass.” J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 122, no. 3 (September 2001): 622–23. https://doi.org/10.1067/mtc.2001.115152.
  • Lynch, J. R., D. Morgan, J. Mance, W. D. Matthew, and D. T. Laskowitz. “Apolipoprotein E modulates glial activation and the endogenous central nervous system inflammatory response.” J Neuroimmunol 114, no. 1–2 (March 1, 2001): 107–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-5728(00)00459-8.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., A. D. Thekdi, S. D. Thekdi, S. K. Han, J. K. Myers, S. V. Pizzo, and E. R. Bennett. “Downregulation of microglial activation by apolipoprotein E and apoE-mimetic peptides.” Exp Neurol 167, no. 1 (January 2001): 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1006/exnr.2001.7541.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., D. M. Lee, D. Schmechel, and H. F. Staats. “Altered immune responses in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice.” J Lipid Res 41, no. 4 (April 2000): 613–20.
  • Mahaffey, K. W., R. A. Harrington, M. L. Simoons, C. B. Granger, C. Graffagnino, M. J. Alberts, D. T. Laskowitz, et al. “Stroke in patients with acute coronary syndromes: incidence and outcomes in the platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa in unstable angina. Receptor suppression using integrilin therapy (PURSUIT) trial. The PURSUIT Investigators.” Circulation 99, no. 18 (May 11, 1999): 2371–77. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.99.18.2371.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., K. Horsburgh, and A. D. Roses. “Apolipoprotein E and the CNS response to injury.” J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18, no. 5 (May 1998): 465–71. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004647-199805000-00001.
  • Sheng, H., D. T. Laskowitz, E. Bennett, D. E. Schmechel, R. D. Bart, A. M. Saunders, R. D. Pearlstein, A. D. Roses, and D. S. Warner. “Apolipoprotein E isoform-specific differences in outcome from focal ischemia in transgenic mice.” J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18, no. 4 (April 1998): 361–66. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004647-199804000-00003.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., W. D. Matthew, E. R. Bennett, D. Schmechel, M. H. Herbstreith, S. Goel, and M. K. McMillian. “Endogenous apolipoprotein E suppresses LPS-stimulated microglial nitric oxide production.” Neuroreport 9, no. 4 (March 9, 1998): 615–18. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-199803090-00010.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., H. Sheng, R. D. Bart, K. A. Joyner, A. D. Roses, and D. S. Warner. “Apolipoprotein E-deficient mice have increased susceptibility to focal cerebral ischemia.” J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17, no. 7 (July 1997): 753–58. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004647-199707000-00005.
  • Laskowitz, D. T., S. Goel, E. R. Bennett, and W. D. Matthew. “Apolipoprotein E suppresses glial cell secretion of TNF alpha.” J Neuroimmunol 76, no. 1–2 (June 1997): 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-5728(97)00021-0.